2.01+SPS+RTP+compared

= = = **__Rise to Power of leaders of authoritarian single-party state leaders: Compare and contrast__** =

__**Past Questions**__
 * Paper 2**
 * ** Analyse the conditions that enabled //one// left-wing leader to become the ruler of a single-party state. (May 2010) **


 * ** Assess the importance of economic distress and ideological appeal in the rise to power of //one// left-wing and //one// right-wing single-party ruler. (Nov 2009) **


 * ** “Unpopular rulers or governments, and their overthrow, were responsible for the formation of the majority of twentieth century single-party states.” To what extent do you agree with this assertion? (May 2009) **


 * **To what extent did the following aid the rise to power of //either// Lenin //or// Mussolini: (a) the First World War (b) weakness of the existing regime (c) ideological appeal? (Nov 2008)**


 * **Analyse the rise to power of //either// Hitler //or// Lenin. (May 2008)**


 * **Analyse the methods used and the conditions which helped in the rise to power of //one// ruler of a single-party state. (May 2007, May 2005)**


 * **“It was personality and not circumstances that brought rulers of single-party states to power.” To what extent do you agree with this statement? (Nov 2006)**

For MARKSCHEME notes, see the second half of this document.



__**Why do single-party states emerge? Looking at the examples of Bolshevik Russia, 1917, 1924-29, and Nazi Germany, 1933**__


 * Circumstances leading to establishment of SPS: overview of compare/contrast **
 * || ** Lenin and Hitler - comparisons ** || ** Lenin and Hitler - differences and more specific details ** ||
 * ** Political ** || **Both leaders came to power against the backdrop of the collapse of the existing political regime**. || Lenin came to power after the collapse of an outdated and backwards looking Tsarism, represented by N2 and looking back to his great-grandfather, N1’s, ideas about the divinely-ordained powers of the autocracy. The Provisional Government that ruled between Feb and Oct 1917 was just that: ‘provisional’. Though Kerensky and the liberals made some attempts at reform, they deferred the really big questions and their proposed model of liberal democracy never really materialised before Lenin and the Bolsheviks stormed the Winter Palace in Oct. Thus Lenin stepped into a situation that can accurately be described as a ‘political vacuum’.

While Lenin seized power from a government that had been in power for little over 6 months, Hitler was appointed Chancellor in a liberal democracy approaching its 15th birthday. Though some historians have agued that Weimar democracy was doomed from the start (given its PR voting system, its too liberal Constitution with hidden dictatorial potential, and its shouldering the blame for defeat in WW1 and Versailles), others have argued that before the Wall Street Crash the hope for its survival looked good. It was only the short-term political mistakes of the Republic after 1929 that gave Hitler his chance, and even then he was not stepping into a political vacuum - there was still a reasonable level of support for the idea of a liberal democracy. Like a Trojan horse, Hitler rose to power in the context of a democracy, subverting it dangerously from within. ||
 * ** Economic ** || ** Both leaders came to power in countries experiencing severe economic and social problems. ** || In Lenin’s case this was a result of the **First World War** intensifying long-term social and economic problems, bringing Russia to a state of virtual collapse by the time of the February revolution in 1917.

For Hitler, the catalyst for the economic crisis which would aid him to power was the **Great Depression** prompted by the Wall Street Crash in October 1929. This economic crisis undid any progress made during the ‘golden years’ of the Weimar Republic (1924 - 29), exposing the fact that Germany was still struggling to cope with the social and economic impact of WW1. ||
 * ** International/ FP ** || ** Both leaders came to power, to some extent, as a result of the impact of WW1. ** || Russia’s disastrous performance in WW1, caused partly by NII’s decisions and partly by general economic and military backwardness, served to weaken support for the Tsardom and cause February revt. Lenin took advantage of this to come to power.

While Hitler’s rise to power was not caused directly by the First World War, as it would be possible to argue for Lenin, the legacy of Versailles and the way in which the First World War ended for Germany was central in both driving Hitler into politics in the first place and shaping the development of the Nazi party and ideology. Hitler used radical opposition to Versailles to secure support from nationalists. ||


 * 1) Failures, problems and crises in the existing system:**


 * Note: many of the factors outlined below are obviously //interlinked//!**


 * || ** Lenin ** || ** Hitler ** ||
 * ** Political failures of the existing regime ** || LT - i.e. lead-up to February Revolution, 1917

Failures of the Tsars, especially Nicholas II, to modernise and adapt Russia's political structure to fit with changing economic and social realities.

AII may have introduced zemstva (1864) giving some local self-government, and NII's October manifesto (1905) finally granted a national duma, but the emphasis was on maintaining autocratic rule. NII, in particular, was opposed to greater democracy, and his fundamental laws (1906) undermined any concessions made with the duma and national constitution.

Refusal to reform meant that as well as radical opposition there was also increasing middle class opposition from liberal parties in the dumas.

NII's mistakes during WW1 - Rasputin, assuming control of army (1916), failure to take support from and work with duma - left him alienated with even his generals plotting to remove him.

ST - i.e. lead-up to October Revolution, 1917

Failure of the Provisional Government to exercise effective control - undermined by the Soviets, who had real power.

Failure of PG to end the war - the Kerensky offensive (June 1917) meant to boost patriotic morale only leads to further defeat.

Failure to make long-term binding decisions on the 'land question' - true to its name the 'provisional government' refused to take decisive action on key issues which had prompted February revt. || LT - origins and nature of the Weimar Republic

Set up after Germany's defeat in WW1 - blamed by the right for this: 'stab in the back' myth, 'November criminals' for signing the armistice. Blamed for signing the hated Versailles treaty - 'diktat' imposed on Germany by the Allies. Not a promising start to be held responsible for these national humiliations!

Trying to introduce the world's most democratic political system in a country lacking liberal traditions was dangerous, especially given the severe attempts made to seize the state in its early years from both the Left (Spartacists, 1919) and the Right (Kapp putsch, 1920). Then using the army and the right to put down the Spartacists compromised the idealistic nature of the Republic from the start, symbolizing the difficult relationship it would have with the traditional elite power groups in Germany.

Constitution itself posed significant problems: i) proportional representation led to weak coalition governments unable to govern effectively; ii) Article 48 gave the President powers to override democracy in emergency situations. Both of these would severely undermine the new Republic.

Importantly, the new democracy failed to win the support of the traditional elite: army, judges and civil servants wanted return to a more authoritarian system. WR failed to win over 'opinion builders' and leaders - i.e. church leaders, teachers, newspaper editors - who could have convinced the population to support democracy. This left the regime lacking key popular support.

ST - failure to respond to Depression effectively

Fear of prompting hyper-inflation like 1923 meant the WR did not take effective intervention measures to lessen impact of depression.

Coalition government could not agree on what cuts were needed, and in 1930 the Social Democrat-led coalition collapsed as a result. This was perceived by the electorate as a failure to deal with the crisis, and votes for anti-democratic parties increased hugely (Nazis, Communists) in September 1930 election. || In short,Tsarist regime failed to address problems facing peasants and workers, which in turn increased political opposition.
 * ** Economic failures of the existing regime ** || LT - Witte's industrialisation drive of the 1890s created a new class of urban industrial workers forced to work long hours in harsh conditions for low pay, and to live in overcrowded, unsanitary housing. Furthermore, even though Stolypin wagered on the kulaks to solve Russia's agricutlural problems, there were still many unresolved issues relating to the peasantry: land pressure given population increase, resentment at taxes and poverty, periodic famine. Many peasants driven into the cities to seek work, adding to the numbers of discontented workers there.

ST - impact of WW1 in worsening social and economic conditions in Russia to breaking point. Devastating impact saw inflation, unemployment, food and fuel shortages, etc etc. || LT - Economic boom and success of the WR's 'golden years' (1924 - 29) only superficial, and built on fragile foundations of US Capital. Dawes and Young Plan reduced levels of reparations allowing Germany industry to recover to pre-war levels by 1927. But this was based on an over-reliance on foreign loans, which would have dangerous consequences after the Wall Street Crash. Furthermore, German agriculture failed to recover, and German farmers were getting into debt with falling food prices - pushing many of them to support the Nazis who promised to help rural Germany.

ST - impact of the global economic slump, following the Wall Street Crash in October 1929. By 1932 6 million unemployed, 1/3 of workforce - much greater number affected in terms of families, lost business customers etc. Many farmers and businesses went bankrupt, as German economy trapped in downward spiral.

Government's failure to intervene - only 'too little too late', with public works schemes in 1932 - left many people dependent upon local authority handouts. Many people forced out of their homes and forced to live in shanty towns. Desperate conditions drove voters towards extremist parties promising radical solutions - i.e. Jan 1932: unemployment peaked at 6 million, Nazi vote 13 million. Communist vote 5 million. || Defeat in Crimean war (1856) highlighted military weaknesses of Tsarist state. In NII's reign, defeat in Russo-Japanese war was a humiliating loss to a non-European power that sparked the 1905 revolution.
 * ** Foreign policy failures of the existing regime ** || Longer-term: decline of Great Power status in relation to the West.

Shorter-term: most historians agree that WW1 was the nail in the coffin for NII and Tsardom. It intensified the political, social and economic problems facing the country, and NII's mis-handling of the whole situation rapidly lost him what support he had left and accelerated his departure in 1917. || Despite Streseman's efforts in the 1920s, Germany was still forced to endure the territorial losses imposed by the Versailles treaty - something which Hitler was able to make significant use of in his rhetoric denouncing the 'November criminals'. Weimar Republic was held firmly responsible for the humiliations of Versailles - esp. detestable for nationalists was denial of self-determination to German speaking peoples in Austria, Sudentenland, Polish corridor etc, and not being allowed to defend their own border with France in the Rhineland. ||


 * 2) Elements in the new system - or how do leaders of single-party state take advantage of the existing system to come to power?**


 * Note: many of the factors outlined below are obviously //interlinked//!**

industrial workers and peasants. More specifically, 'april theses' included opposition to the war, which separated Lenin from all other political parties and made Bolsheviks uniquely attractive. The other parties were tainted by association with the Provisional Govt. || 'Nationalist' element - i.e. overturning the hated Versailles treaty, making Germany great again - obviously had a particular appeal as a source of potential pride to a nation devastated by economic depression. 'Socialist' element, though never seriously considered important by Hitler - beyond a dislike for 'Jewish capitalists', and the collectivist thinking underlying the ideal of the //volksgemeinschaft// - helped to attract workers, peasants and those who could otherwise have voted for the Communists. Ideal of national unity in this //volksgemeinschaft//, with its anti-individual rights and belief that all should serve the greater good of the people, as a powerful vision of togetherness and community after the divisions of the Weimar years and the suffering following the Depression. || //Socialism in One Country// (1924), and rejection of Trotsky's 'permanent revolution', allowed Stalin to appeal to patriotic and nationalist Russians. Russia would build its own socialist state without outside hep, and focus on fixing their own problems. || - worldwide socialist revt - end to war immediately - end to co-operating with PG - Soviet to take power - land to be given to peasants
 * || **Lenin** || **Hitler** || **Stalin** ||
 * **Attractive ideology** || Obvious general appeal of Bolshevism to
 * **Offering solutions to**
 * problems** || 'April Theses':

Distinctive position! || In contrast to the weak and indecisive democracy of the WR, Hitler offered a **strong leader** prepared to take action to save Germany. Hitler also offered **clear scapegoats** for Germany's problems - Jews, Communists, 'November criminals' - a tactic showing Hitler's political cunning, as it drew Germans together against these clearly-defined Others. Promised different voter groups things specifically targeted at them: - unemployed would be helped by job creation schemes, i.e. public works - farmers struggling with debts would get subsidies - law, order and return to traditional values for the middle classes - defence against the Communists, via strength of the SA, to appeal to big business and conservative nationalists. ||  || concise, easily repeated even among poorly-educated peasants: a brilliant political slogan! 'All power to the Soviets' - again, simple and catchy, even in Lenin did not intend to enact it! || Told people what they wanted to hear - i.e. ideal of //volksgemeinschaft// and promises to assist with agriculture helped secure Nazi support from the farmers. Used effective modern campaigning methods to get their message out to the people - i.e. Hitler being flown across the country to make public speeches, or use of striking visual posters and films and radio (role of Goebbels in this). In particular, the use of the **mass rally** - i.e. the annual party rally at Nuremburg - allowed Hitler to showcase Nazi symbolism, and offer a powerful experience of his anti-individualistic philosophy - i.e. forgetting oneself as part of the mass, surrendering one's services to the nation. || Ability to sense public opinion and give the people what they want to hear in his policy - i.e. once he had defeated the figures on the Left of the party he then adopted their criticisms of NEP, which allowed him to reach out to workers who angry with 'Nepmen' etc. || Lenin was an "//orator of enormous impact// //and power, breaking down complicated// //systems into the simplest and most// //generally accessible forms"// and hammering them home with his audience (Sukhanov, diarist of the revolution).
 * **Effective propaganda** || 'Bread, Peace and Land' - simple,
 * **Charismatic leader**
 * and leadership skills** || **Oratorical skils:**

Sep 1917 - to wait and not take power now //"is to doom the revolution to failure".// Lenin threatened to resign from Bolshevik party, if they did not take the opportunity to seize power when they had the chance.
 * Effective and decisive timing:**

in persuading the party to accept that the Bolsheviks could take power in the name of the working classes - a second revolution would be possible, even though Russia had a small industrial working class. Lenin's strong determined leadership was the foundation of the October Revolution. || **Great orator**: had hypnotic effect on audience; master of psychology of mass politics - i.e. able to tell crowd what they wanted and needed to hear, exploiting their anxiety and promising solutions to their problems. As with all gifted politicians, Hitler had ability to appear 'a man of the people' who understood the struggle of the average voter.
 * Leadership of the party:**

Transformed Nazi party from small minority of violence that led the failed Munich beer hall putsch in 1923 into a national political party that received 37% of votes in 1932. Understood that the road to power lay not through force but via gaining national support and gaining a foothold in the democracy in order to collapse it from within. || **Political cunning:** Stalin took maximum advantage of his position as General Secretary in order to out-maneuver his opponents. In particular, when it came to issues that were to be voted on in Party congress, Stalin could rely on winning these as he had appointed a loyal army of his own supporters in the party (after Lenin enrolment which changed the nature of party from small group of dedicated revolutionaries to a bigger, less well-educated mass.) After winning any vote, Lenin's '**ban on** from actively opposing any decisions made. Stalin used this ban in 1926 to defeat the Left opposition - Trotsky, Kammanev, Zinoviev - by branding them 'factionalists'. In general, Stalin was masterful at both creating and taking advantage of opportunities to consolidate and improve his position in the leadership race. who helped Lenin travel in a sealed train through Germany on his way back to Russia in 1917, in the belief (correct as it turned out) that revolutionary agitation could only weaken the Russian war effort in WW1 to their advantage.
 * Effective leader**:
 * factions'** (1921) prevented Stalin's opponents
 * Stalin's RTP depended on**
 * his skill and cunning to take advantage of**
 * the circumstances which fate presented**
 * him.**
 * Robert Service on Stalin and his RTP:**
 * "//At tactics and conspiracy//**
 * //he was masterful. He had reached//**
 * //dominance in the party before Trotsky,//**
 * //Zinoviev, Kamanev and Bukharin knew//**
 * //what had happened."//** ||
 * **Role of //chance//**
 * and help of others** || **Helped by the Germans:**

Kerensky's blunders - first in continuing the war and refusing to take a stand on the 'land issue', and then in arming the Bolsheviks and allowing them to be seen as the heroes during the Kornilov affair. As the PG became more unpopular, so the Bolsheviks increased their support over 1917. || **Put into power via backstairs intrigue:** Hitler did not seize power but was //invited// to be Chancellor on 30 January 1933, by Hindenburg and key army and business figures. These believed that Hitler could be used to set up a 'safe' authoritarian dictatorship that would protect and serve their interests. However, this underestimated Hitler's drive and determination to destroy Weimar and replace it with his Nazi vision (not that of the 'old guard'). This factor depends on the poltical success of the Nazis - if they were not the most popular party, Hindenburg would not have looked towards Hitler. || **Trotsky's failure to attend Lenin's funeral:** though this was not really 'luck' as Stalin himself tricked Trotsky by telling him the wrong date,so he was then able to take a key role at the centre of the funeral. Stalin also established the 'cult of Lenin' in his speech, and set himself up as Lenin's loyal follower - though his critics thought this was because of his own lack of ideas, it was a good way of securing popular support.
 * Helped enormously by the PG's failures:**

by not making Lenin's will public, Stalin escaped Lenin's warning comments that he was dangerous, rude, over-powerful and should be removed. It also meant that positive comments about Trotsky were not made public, weakening position of Stalin's key opponent. Zinoviev and Kammanev played an important role in this decision.
 * Central Committee's failure to release will:**

Trotsky under-estimated Stalin, and failed to realise the threat he posed until it was too late. As an intellectual, Trotsky considered himself above the political 'dog-fighting' and 'dirty work' that Stalin excelled at. He was also disliked by other leading party members, who considered him arrogant and aloof; plus as a Jew he was subject to traditional Russian anti-semitism. ||
 * Trotsky's failure to fight Stalin:**


 * __Comparison of the early background of each SPS leader:__**

a wealthy middle class family. Execution of Lenin's older brother in 1887 for failed assassination attempt on Tsar AIII played an important role in driving the young Lenin towards radical political opposition. Influenced in his early revolutionary thinking by earlier tradition of opposition in Russia, including Chernyshevsky's 'What isto be done?' (1863) which most likely gave Lenin the idea of a small 'vanguard' of committed revolutionaries to change society. Studied law at university where he was exposed further to radical ideas, and eventually thrown out for revolutionary agitation. He adopted the scientific materialism of Marxism, which would crucially shape his later ideology. Worked as a professional revolutionary in St Petersburg, arrested for encouraging strikes and spent 4 years in prison and in exile in Siberia, 1896 - 1900. 1903, in London, Lenin prompted the split of the Social Democratic Party into the Mensheviks and the Bolsheviks over the question of criteria for party membership. Played only a very minor role in 1905 revolution, not returning to Russia until October 1905 and having little impact when he did. 1906 - 1917, Lenin lived in exile, trying to raise funds and continue revolutionary agitation from abroad via writing pamphlets etc. However, frustration and general lack of impact characterised these years - as late as 1917, Lenin argued he would not see a revolution in Russia in his lifetime.
 * **Lenin - middle class professional revolutionary!** || **Stalin - working-class peasant bureaucrat** || **Hitler - failed romantic with nationalist mission** ||
 * Born Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, 1870, in Simbirsk into


 * Ideas and writings:**


 * Lenin adapted Marx's ideas into a theoretical body that**
 * justified revolution //now// and outlined plans for action -**
 * this is called 'Leninism-Marxism'.**

revolution to be led by a 'revolutionary vanguard', small party of dedicated revolutionaries to guide the working class and peasantswho had not yet gained 'revolutionary consciousness'.
 * //What is to be done?// (1902) -** sets forward idea of the

built on Trotsky's idea of the 'weakest link' - that WW1 was a conflictover resources and territory that would bring about the collapse of capitalism. Civil war and eventually a socialist revolution could break out in a less developed country like Russia, and then spread to the more industrialised states.
 * //Imperialism: the Highest Stage of Capitalism// (1916) -**

after the revolution all existing state structures will be dismantled and replaced temporarily by a 'dictatorship of the proletariat', and in the longer term the state would 'wither away'. In the utopian vision of the Communist future, the people would manage their own affairs in industry and agriculture. || Born Joseph Dzhugashvili, 1879, in Gori, Georgia. Working-class background - mother the daughter of serfs, father a shoe-maker - and grew up in tough conditions. Started studying to become a Priest, having done well in school, but here he was attracted to Marxism ahead of religion. Admired Lenin, and worked as a revolutionary - incl. robbing banks to raise funds! Arrested and exiled to Siberia regularly, c. 1902 - 1913. 1917, editor of //Pravda// and put forward a Pro-war line before Lenin's 'april theses' changed his mind. Close to the centre of the Bolshevik party, but though later Soviet historiography would claim otherwise he did not play any key role in October 1917 and the Bolshevik take-over of power.
 * //The State and Revolution// (1917) -** Lenin's projection that


 * Positions within the party:**

1917, Commissar for Nationalities - placed him close to Lenin, able to win his trust. 1919, appointed head of the Orgburo, in charge of parts of party organisation, and elected member of politburo. 1922, party's first General Secretary in charge of general organisation.

These positions showed that Lenin, at least at first, trusted and respected Stalin. Other key party members saw him as a dull and mediocre administrator, but his position within the party enabled him to prove them wrong! || Born 1889 in Braunau-am-Inn, Austria. Son of lower middle-class customs official - possibly 1/4 Jewish (something he of course denied!). Largely a failure in school, gifted but lazy, Hitler left with no qualifications in 1905. He was shy, awkward, a dreamer who thought he had a big future, lonely and unable to form loving relationships (hard father, doting mother!) After failing to enter Arts academy in Vienna, H spent 6 years drifting around the streets, living off a small allowance and selling his paintings. Here he was exposed to the powerful political ideas that would later define the Nazi ideology: German nationalism, racism, anti-Semitism, anti- Communism and anti-democracy. 1914 - Hitler delighted when WW1 broke out, joined the German army and remained deeply committed to German nationalism and the war effort. Received Iron Cross medal for bravery. 1918 - in hospital, wounded, when he heard of Germany's defeat, H was convinced that Germany had been betrayed by the socialists, jews and politicians of the new WR. 1919 - works as an army spy in Bavarian army's political section. Joins DAP (German Workers' Party), which in 1920 becomes the NSDAP (Nazi party) with its 25 point programme. 1921 - becomes leader (fuhrer) of the party. 1923 - failed Munich Beer Hall Putsch. Hitler turned trial into political exhibition for his ideas, and that he was only given minimum sentence of 5 years for treason (which carried death penalty) shows how sympathetic judges were to the Nazi cause. 1924 - released from Landsberg prison after just 9 months, determined to take power via legal means. 1926 - //Mein Kampf// published, Hitler's manifesto. 1928 election - Nazis received just 2.6% of the votes. Hitler seemed destined to remain a lunatic on the margins of Germany's right-wing parties.


 * Key ideas (//Mein Kampf//):**

Hitler was obsessed with the 'purity' of the German people, whose blood should not be 'contaminated' by Jewish blood. This was based on Hitler's view of race, that saw the world as a Darwinistic struggle between different races for resources and control, in which only the strongest would survive.
 * Anti-semitism and Aryan master-race:**

Given his belief in the superiority of the Aryan race, Hitler proposed an empire of German speaking people, a Greater Germany to dominate Central Europe.
 * Extreme German nationalism:**

To survive and support itself, this Greater Germany would require **//lebensraum//** - living space in the East for resources.
 * Lebensraum:**

Hitler hated Communism and the ideas of Marx, who of course was Jewish. However, Hitler was prepared to take some 'socialist' ideas in order to try and win support of the people and divert them away from the Communists - thus National //Socialist// party! ||
 * Anti-Marxism:**


 * __Historiography of Lenin and Hitler's RTP:__**


 * **Lenin** || **Hitler** ||
 * **Key questions -**


 * 1) How important was Lenin's individual contribution?**
 * Role of individual vs role of circumstances!**


 * 2) Was October 1917 a minority coup or a popular uprising?**

Was October 1917 "Lenin's revolution"? Admittedly, //"Lenin had a heavier impact on the course of events// //than anyone else"//, but there //"were other mighty factors at// //work as well in Russia in 1917"// (i.e. exhausted workers, war-weary soldiers, angry peasants - almost all waiting to be led to a revolution!)
 * Robert Service**

Coup d'etat or popular revolution? Most striking feature - not Bolshevik action or workers', but //"complete disintegration of governmental authority" .// In this sense, not a coup d'etat but rather the //"Bolsheviks seized power because// //the country was in the throes of anarchy".//
 * P. Kenez**

Key role played by Lenin, as an individual and leader //"had Lenin not managed to come to Petrograd in April 1917, the// //October Revolution would not have taken place."// //"If neither Lenin nor I had been present in Petrograd, there would// //have been no revolution" -// the Bolshevik leaders would've stopped it.
 * Trotsky**

As dictated by the demands of Party ideology and the Marxist view of history: October 1917 was a popular revolution led and enacted by the workers and peasants, with Lenin and the party's guidance. Pomomarev: "//the working class led the struggle of the whole people// //against the autocracy and against the dictatorship of the bourgeoisie"//
 * Soviet view**

Richard Pipes and Cold War interpretation opposed to the USSR and Communism. October 1917 led to Stalinism and totalitarian dictatorship: thus it was not a 'popular revolution', but a 'tiny minority' of fanatical Bolsheviks who seized power and forced their ideas on the masses. Pipes: "//October was a not a revolution but a classic coup d'etat .....// //The 'masses' ...were not told they were taking over until after the event."//
 * Western liberal view**

The revolution itself may have been a coup, but the political action of the soldiers, workers and peasants can not be ignored, as it provided the greater context in which the Bolsheviks operated. Orlando Figes: October revolution was a coup only supported by a small minority, but "//it took place amidst a social revolution, which was centred// //on the popular realization of Soviet power..... The political vacuum brought// //about by this social revolution enabled the Bolsheviks to seize power in the// //cities."// || **Key questions -**
 * Revisionists and synthesisers**


 * 1) Was the Weimar Republic doomed to fail?**


 * 2) Was Hitler's rise to power inevitable, given**
 * Versailles, defeat in WW1 and the nature of German**
 * society?**

Developed a powerful myth in the 1930s that Hitler's rise to power was //providential// - i.e. fated to happen. According to this Nazi version of events, Hitler was destined to rule Germany and between 1929 and 1933 the German people finally came to understand this, and put their faith in Hitler. speaks for itself. Though the Nazi vote did increase from 2.6 % in 1928 to 37% in July 1932, the majority of Germans never voted for Hitler in a democratic election - he was appointed via the 'backstairs' intriguing of the Right. Most modern historians argue that there are a number of factors that need to be considered beyond Hitler himself to understand his RTP, esp. the circumstances created by the Great Depression and the way this exacerbated the weaknesses of the Weimar Republic.
 * Nazi propaganda - Goebbels**
 * //Critique//:** obviously the subjective nature of this interpretation

Nothing inevitable about Hitler's RTP - circumstances, chance and 'backstairs intrigue' brought him to power! Weimar Republic seemed likely to survive without the Great Depression.
 * Ian Kershaw**

"//There was nothing inevitable about Hitler's triumph in// //January 1933"// //"External events ...// //put the Nazis on the political map" - i.e. the// //Wall Street Crash and the Great Depression.// //"The future for the Weimar Republic looked promising.// //And without the onset of the world economic crisis from 1929// //it might have remained so."// //"In bringing Hitler to power, chance events and conservative// //miscalculation played a larger role than any actions of the// //Nazi leader himself."// //"The handover of power to Hitler on 30th January 1933 was// //the worst possible outcome to the irrecoverable crisis of// //Weimar democracy. It did not have to happen. It was at no// //stage a foregone conclusion."//

Weimar Republic seemed likely to fail in any case, given circumstances of its creation etc.
 * Geary**

//"////No one in their right minds would claim that the terms of the// //Treaty of Versailles did not play a major role in the collapse of// //the Weimar Republic."// "//The Weimar Republic had failed to build on the fundamental// //compromises achieved in 1918 and to use them to create a// //deep rooted legitimacy of its own: it had lost the struggle for// //the hearts and minds of the people."// //"The economic crisis acted as a trigger, occasioning the// //abandonment of a political system that had already lost its// //legitimacy."// ||


 * __Resources:__**